Contributions of Muslim scholars to the development of science of history

Sunday, 25 July 2010

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Written by Dr. Ragheb Elsergany

Introduction:

Undoubtedly, history began with the existence of the human society itself when man began to register aspects of life by one way or another; having invented a fresh domain of man's self-knowledge. No buts, such a pattern of knowledge came to fulfill social needs that imposed themselves on human groups from the very beginning. Thus, we can decide that history has a social job to do by answering human groups' needs of self-knowledge[1].

Ibn Khaldun says: "History is an art that is circulated by nations and generations, that deserves to be traveled to, which ordinary and mindless people are yearning to learn, for which kings and leaders vie, and which is equally fathomed out by scholars and ignorant people. Overtly, it is no more than news on days and countries as well as past events of early centuries, where sayings grow, proverbs are made, people make fun in their festivities at their clubs, and which tells us how human beings had their ups and downs, and how countries expanded the scope and area and lived on the earth until they went away and vanished. Covertly (within the science of history for well-versed people), there is consideration and investigation, and explanation of creatures whose creation is precise, as well as knowledge of facts whose causes are profound, and so it is inherent and deep-rooted in wisdom and deserves to be in its sciences[2]."

Definition of science of history:

History can be defined as such: "It is the knowledge of the situations of communities and their countries, their traces and customs, deeds of their people, lineage and deaths, and so on. Its subject involves the conditions of people in the past, including prophets, holy men, scholars, wise people, kings, poets and others. Its purpose is to know past events. Its usefulness lies in extracting lessons from such conditions, and gaining experience from the ups and downs of times in a bid to fend off relevant disadvantages, but to capitalize on advantages. This science is another age for those who want to learn from others, and a land for travelers to utilize"[3].

Science of Islamic history and recording it:

The science of Islamic history was characterized by originality and independence given that it emerged from within the Islamic society in order to answer its needs and purposes. Islamic history was not a shadow of others or a quotation of their historical works and thoughts. Rather, it came to respond to historians' religious sentiments, and was integral to religious sciences. Hejira calendar was the basis for Islamic history to record its events and chronicle its times[4].

In pre-Islamic period and early Islam, the Arabs used to keep history in their memories, but failed to record it not because they did not know how to write, but because they preferred memorizing to writing as the talent of writing at that time was not an asset in society compared to memorizing. Therefore, the history of early Arabs, which included facts, days and battles, was engraved in memory and circulated by their tongues. But, when Muslim Arabs kept away from their surroundings and sprouted on the land for conquest and invasion among peoples who were ignorant of their language, they lost their gift of memorizing so there was a need for recording. In late the second Hejira century, the Muslims direly needed to adjust and recount the Hadith of the Prophet (pbuh), biographies and conditions, and that was the beginning of recoding Islamic history. But, Islamic history began to be written only when the people of conquered countries converted to Islam and learnt Arabic as their earlier civilization helped them taste history. So, early historians in Islam were mostly non-Arabs[5].

It can be said that historical Islamic studies were initially based on the biography of the Messenger (pbuh), his battles and his companions who fought with them, and the migration of early Muslims to Abyssinia and then to Medina, when Mecca and Medina were the main center for the activity of this historical movement. Historians used to rely upon oral narrations just as Hadith specialists did, which bespeaks that Islamic history initially took the same course of Hadith. Thus, the historical Khabar (the news) was reported by a chain of news narrators and that was called Sanad or Isnad and then Matn (the news text). Thence, it went beyond the books of battles and biographies, which are the oldest historical books that combine Hadith and history. Muslims were interested in such books as they wanted to learn from, and rely upon, the words and deeds of the Messenger (pbuh).

Islamic history recording methods and famous Khabar narrators:

There were, thus, a couple of Islamic history-writing methods. The first method was adopted by Hadith specialists obviously through the history of the Prophetical biography in Medina. It was marked by mentioning the Khabar with its Isnad. The second method was that of Khabar narrators. It was characterized by giving a proper image on the historical fact and revealing details and relating poetry and sermons. This way emerged in Kufa. Afterwards, both methods were combined. Other historical schools emerged; having been marked by handling subjects bearing on battles, Islamic conquests and genealogy.

Famous Khabar narrators were Aban bin Othman bin Affan[6], Mohammad bin Affan, Mohammad bin Shehab al-Zohari, Ibn Ishaq[7], Awana bin al-Hakam al-Kalbi[8], Saif bin Omar al-Kofi[9], and al-Mada'ini[10], who is one of the most important Khabar narrators for having been more reliant upon relating than others and having adopted the method of Hadith specialists in criticizing, scrutinizing and organizing narrations.

Historical writing methods of Muslims:

The most important methods of historical writing come as follows:

Books of Prophetical biography and battles of the Messenger (pbuh):

Muslims' interest in the sayings and deeds of the Messenger (pbuh) – for following and hinging upon them in Islamic lawmaking and administrative systems – pushed writers to adopt classification in the biography of the Messenger (pbuh). The narrators of the Prophetical biography and their books can be chronologically divided into three groups: the first group mainly included Orwa bin al-Zubair bin al-Awam, (died in 92 AH), Abban bin Othman bin Affan, who left behind sheets containing fragments on the Messenger's life, and Sharhabeel bin Saad[11]. The second group comprised Mohammad bin Muslim bin Shahab al-Zuhri, a great historian of battles and biographies. The third group mainly involved Mohammad bin Ishq, who is said to have written the oldest biographic books that have reached us.

Books of classes:

Islamic historical culture found its way to books of classes at an early time, which are pertinent to the recording and authenticity of Hadith, something which led to the consideration of Isnad and narrators' conditions, thus giving rise to the idea of classes.

Hadith scholars had to seek to set criteria for accepting and rectifying the text of Hadith of the Messenger (pbuh). Such criteria were mainly based on the morality, truthfulness and piety of narrators, in addition to their familial surroundings, nature of their connection with the Prophet (pbuh), the period which they spent with him, and their relationships with his close companions and the righteous caliphs. They also focused on the occurrence of an actual or possible meeting, and were keen on knowing the birth and death dates of those narrators mentioned in the Isnad.

Thus, Isnad led to the emergence of biographies that include detailed information on Hadith-narrators. Now that it was necessary to order those men in successive classes and to focus on contemporaneity, common relationships and the nature of such relationships in pursuit of a chronological list of narrators until mentioning the originator who is the Prophet (pbuh), the idea of classes came to the surface to introduce the Isnad men under diverse classes[12].

Accordingly, classes emerged in many fields, including books of Hadith scholars' classes, memorizers' classes, Fqh (jurisprudence) scholars' classes, Al-Shafia'ia's classes, Al-Hanabila's classes, readers' classes, Quranic interpreters' classes, Sufism's classes, poets' classes, Arabic grammarians' classes and doctors' classes. Renowned books of classes include (al-Tabaqat al-Kobra or Greater Classes) by Mohammad bin Saad al-Zuhri[13], (Tabaqat al-Shua'raa or Poets' Classes) by Ahmad bin Salam al-Jamhi[14], and (Tabaqat al-Atebaa or Doctors' Classes) by Ahmad bin Abi Usaibaa (died in 668 AH), and others.

Biographical books:

These books encyclopedically deal with the biographies of famous people who share the characteristic of fame in their specialization fields; including scholars, men of letters, leaders and caliphs, and others. They mainly include "Muajam al-Udabaa (Dictionary of Men of Letters)" by Yaqout al-Hamawi (died in 626 AH), "Usd al-Ghaba Fi Marefat al-Sahaba (Lions of Forest in Acquaintance with Companions)" by Ibn Atheer, Wafiat al-Ayan (Obituary of Dignitaries) by Ahmad bin Ibrahim bin Khilkan (died in 681 AH), which is one of the most famous and best biographical books in view of precision and correctness, "Fawat al-Wafiat" (Demise of Deaths) by Ibn Shaker al-Kotbi[15], and "al-Wafi Belwafiat" (Presentation of Deaths) by Salah Eddin Khalil al-Safadi[16].

Books of conquest:

They handled the conquest of countries. They included "Fotouh Misr, Maghreb and al-Andalus" (Conquests of Egypt, Maghreb and Andalusia) by Ibn Abdel-Hakam (died in 257 AH), "Fotouh al-Boldan" (Conquests of Countries" by Blathri[17], "Fotouh al-Sham (Conquests of Levant" by al-Waqdi[18].

Genealogical books:

They dealt with the genealogy and origins of Arabs. The Arabs were very interested in this science due to tribal fanaticism that was inherent in pre-Islamic period. Famous genealogists mainly included Mohammed bin al-Sa'eb al-Kalbi, who wrote "Jamharet al-Nasab" (Collection of Genealogy), Musaab al-Zubairi[19], who wrote "Nasab Quraish" (Genealogy of Quraish), and "Jamharet Ansab al-Arab" (Collection of Arab Genealogy) by Ibn Hazm al-Andalusi.

Local histories:

They are historical books that were devoted to the history of a certain country with many details. Such famous books include "Wulat Misr Waqudatuha" (Rulers and Judges of Egypt), by Abu Omar al-Kandi[20], "Tareekh Baghdad" (History of Baghdad), by al-Khateeb al-Baghdadi, "Tareekh Demashq" (History of Damascus), by Ali bin al-Hasan bin Asakir, which consisted of eighty volumes, "al-Bayan al-Mughreb Fi Akhbar al-Maghreb" (Setting Statement of Maghreb News" by Ibn Athari[21], "Anujoum al-Zahera in Muluk Misr Walqahira" (The Bright Stars in Kings of Egypt and Cairo), by Jamal Eddin Yussef bin Taghri Bardi al-Atabki[22] (died in 874 AH).

Books of general histories:

Historians expanded their scope of interest to include, part from biographies, wider and more thorough compilations called (general histories), which handled the writing of history in chronological order; having chronicled the history of humanity since the beginning of the Creation, involving pre-Islamic  heavenly missions, pre-Islamic period, the era of the Prophet (pbuh), the righteous caliphs until successive Islamic histories. Among the renowned writers of general histories are Mohammed bin Jarir al-Tabari, who wrote "Tareekh Arusol Walmuluk" (History of Messengers and Kings), which is better known as "Tareekh al-Tabari" (History of al-Tabari", "Muruj al-Thahab Wamaden al-Jawhar" (Lawns of Gold and Jewelry Minerals" by Mas'udi, which is an encyclopedic book, "al-Kamel Fi al-Tareekh" (The Perfect in History), known as "Tareekh Ibn al-Atheer" (History of Ibn al-Atheer), by Ezz Eddin bin al-Atheer, which is one of the most reliable sources of Islamic history, "al-Bedaya Walnehaya" (The Beginning and The End) by Ibn Katheer, "al-Ebar Wadiwan al-Mubtada' Walkhabar Fi Ayam al-Arab Walajam Walbarbar Waman Asarahum Min Thawi al-Sultan al-Akbar" (The Lessons and Diwan of the Subject and the Predicate in the Days of Arabs, Non-Arabs and Berbers, and Their Influential Contemporaries), better known as  "Tareekh Ibn Khaldun" History of Ibn Khaldun), by Abu Zaid Abdelrahman bin Mohammed bin Khaldun[23].

There are also other forms of historical writing, reaching one thousand types by some historians. Al-Thahabi mentioned 40 types of writing, involving the Prophetical biography, stories of the prophets, history of the companions, caliphs, kings, countries, ministers, rulers, fuqaha' (jurisprudents), readers, memorizers, Hadith scholars, historians, grammarians, men of letters, linguists, poets, worshippers, pious people, Sufists, judges, governors, tutors, preachers, dignitaries, doctors, philosophers and misers[24].

Franz Rosenthal[25] says: "There is no doubt that the quantity of Islamic historical writings is so big. Byzantine annals are closely related to Islamic ones, but Islamic history is more distinctive thanks to its major variation and stupendous quantity. In fact, we may doubt that there were historical writings anywhere in early history which could have been equivalent to Islamic ones in quantity. The historical writings of Muslims could be equivalent to Greek and Latin ones in number, but surely outnumber those of Europe and Middle East in the Middle Ages. Undoubtedly, it was not possible to hide their excellent position in the Islamic literary movement from western scientists who were in touch with Arabs. But, those scientists were only interested in sciences, philosophy and theology. Just like their ordinary Muslim counterparts, they declined to recognize any knowledge of historical writings."[26]

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