Contributions of Muslim scholars to the development of science of literature

Tuesday, 03 August 2010

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Written by Dr. Ragheb Elsergany

Introduction:

The Arabs familiarized themselves with the science of literature before the emergence of Islam. Although it is possible to trace the beginning of arts like Latin and Persian arts, it is impossible to do so with the science of Arab literature given that it is older than the texts which have reached us. Muslims learnt many sciences from Greece, but they failed to take a considerable amount of Greek literature in spite of its wonderfulness. Arab literature was not either influenced by Greek characteristics although the Arabs read some Greek literary books such as the book "Poetics" by Aristotle and the renowned Greek epics of Iliad and Odyssey. On the contrary, Arab literature had an influence on European arts – as we will see later – which stemmed from Greek and Latin literature. No buts, literature expresses the spirit of the nation. Arab literature also shows the core of Arab and Islamic spirit[1].

Definition of science of literature:

Scholars define the science of literature as: knowing how to avert all Arabic verbal and written mistakes. Its purpose is to perfect the arts of poetry and prose, to refine the mind and to purify the soul[2]. Ibn Khaldun says: "To linguists, its fruit is the aim, which is the perfection of the arts of poetry and prose in line with the methods and trends of the Arabs.[3]"

Origin of the word Al Adab "literature" and its types:

The origin of the word Al Adab "literature" is so unknown that it was developed in the Islamic era given that the Arabs changed their lives by communicating with the conquered countries which had previous literatures. When Islam spread among the peoples of those countries, the word Al Adab, in early Islamic, had a religious meaning showing Sunnah, but then meant the style of any work and general culture, and limited derivation from every science. Generally speaking, it eventually meant the perfection of the arts of poetry and prose[4].

Poetry:

Poetry is the words that are metered by rhyme, i.e. the last letter of rhyme. Poetry is deemed part of the best knowledge of the Arabs due to the fact that it is ancient. It reached us from pre-Islamic period with its metrical rules. Its various types were composed by the Arabs, which were later called: ragaz, qarid, maqboud and mabsout. In pre-Islamic period, the Arabs used to put marketplaces at the disposal of poets at allotted times to deliver their poems in the presence of dignitaries, with eye-catching poems having been hung on the walls of Kaaba and called mua'laqa (hung).

Arabic poetry included varied subjects of ostentation, eulogy, satire, elegy, depiction, love and eroticism. But, ostentation, especially tribal and lineal pride, was the key subject. In Arabic sources, there are many examples of pre-Islamic ostentation among tribal poets, which used to trigger off war and bloodshed until Islam emerged and prohibited such heinous practices. Among pre-Islamic Arab poets were Mohlhel, Emra'o al-Qais, al-Nabeagha al-Thubiani, Zuhair bin Abi Solma, Antara bin Shaddad, Tarafa bin al-Abd, Alqama al-Fahl, al-Asha and Labid bin Rabeaa. There were also famous female poets like Hind and al-Khansaa.[5]

Poetry in early Islam

With the emergence of Islam which tabooed lineal and tribal ostentation that used to be the key subject of Arabic poetry and that threw the Arabs into divisions and war, poetry took another course as Islam had a balanced look at it and rapped hypocrite poets, but extolled sincere ones. Allah, be He Exalted, says: {As for poets, the erring follow them, hast thou not seen how they stray in every valley, And how they say that which they do not? * Save those who believe and so good works, and remember Allah much, and vendicate themselves after they have been wronged. Those who do wrong will come to know by what a "great" reverse they will be overturned.} ِ[Al-Shu'ar'a 224-227] Ibn Kaab narrated that the Messenger (pbuh) said:  "There is wisdom in poetry."[6] Ibn Abbas (may God be pleased with him) said: "Should you fail to find something in Qur'an, you can find it in poetry instead. It is the diwan of Arabs."[7]

The poets supported Islamic Dawa (call), fought in liberation and conquest battles, eulogized the Messenger (pbuh) and the companions, spurred fighters to go on jihad and martyrdom for the cause of Allah, and elegized martyrs. Among the key poets of early Islam are Kaab bin Zuhair (died in 26 AH-645 AD), the poet of al-Burda (the gown), Abu Thua'ib al-Huthali (died in 27 AH-648 AD) and Hassan bin Thabet (died in 54 AH-674 AD).

Poetry in Umayyad era:

In the Umayyad era, the purposes of poetry developed to include fresh arts pertinent to Islamic doctrine through the caliphs and rulers' interest in poetry on the one hand, and the development of social life as well as the emergence of political parties on the other hand. Poetry developed in this era due to the state and rulers' awareness of the need for it, along with its great influence on the public. The Umayyads used it as a means to make public their achievements, gain support for their ruling, attack the leaders of their adversaries, particularly Shia, Khawarejh and Zubayrioun. Key Umayyad poets are Asha Rabeaa Abdullah bin Kharejah (died in 100 AH-718 AD), Udai bin al-Reqaa (died in 95 AH-714 AD), who was the poet of al-Walid bin Abdel-Malik. Among the great Iraqi Umayyad poets who lived under the wing of the Umayyads, are Jarir (died in 110 AH-728 AD), Farazdaq (died in 110 AH-728 AD), and al-Akhtal (died in 90 AH-708 AD). As for poets of anti-Umayyad parties, they mainly included the Shia poets of Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali (died in 69 AH-), al-Kumait bin Zaid (died in 126 AH), and Khawarejh poet of al-Termah bin Hakim (died in 100 AH), and al-Zubayri poet of Ibn Qais al-Ruqaiat (died in 75 AH). In this era, erotic poetry, with its two types of platonic and candid eroticism, emerged; having been characterized by simplicity, truthfulness and sobriety. The first type mainly produced Jamil Buthaina (died in 82 AH), Laila al-Akhilia (died in 75 AH), while Omar bin Abi Rabe'a (died in 93 AH) was at the top of the second type[8].

Poetry in Abbasid era:

In Abbasid era, poetry witnessed a huge revolution both in quantity and quality in terms of subjects, meanings, methods and vocabulary; with new purposes having come to light, but some earlier others vanished. Political and enthusiastic poetry and platonic eroticism weakened, but eulogy and elegy poetry and gnomic poetry increased. Ascetical, Sufi, philosophical, educational, narrative poetry appeared. Later poets went too far in using types of paronomasia and antithesis, and in embellishing words, thus leading to the renaissance of the poetic and literary movement by virtue of merger among different communities and elements and transfer of foreign cultures through translation, as well as crystallization of political and doctrinal differences among Islamic sects on the one hand and between them and others on the other hand. In addition, poets were encouraged by caliphs and rulers in Baghdad and other cities. Abbasid literature produced great poets like Bashar bin Bord (died in 168 AH), Abu Nuwas (died in 198 AH), Abu Tammam Habeeb bin Aws al-Ta'i (died in 228 AH), al-Buhtori (died in 284 AH), In al-Romi (died in 283 AH), Abu al-Tayyib al-Mutanabbi (died in 354 AH), Abu Firas al-Hamdani (died in 357 AH), and Abu Al Ala Al-Marri (died in 449 AH).[9]

Poetry in Andalusia:

In Andalusia, Andalusian poets invented and developed muwashah (postclassical form of Arabic poetry arranged in stanzas) innovated its methods. muwashah was a big step in the development of the form of Arabic poetry; having allowed poets to do as they wished in rhyme and meter. It led to the emergence of popular zagal (poems in strophic form). Ibn Khaldun says: "As for the people of Andalusia, when poetry mushroomed in their country, its methods and arts were refined and was elegantly composed, later poets invented an art called muwashah."[10] Among outstanding Andalusian poets are Ibn Zaydoun (died in 463 AH), and King of Seville bin Abbad (died in 488 AH).

Prose and booming art of writing:

Prose is the unmetered form of written language. It was not less flourishing and productive than poetry. In early Islam, prose was simple, direct and concise. It had various forms, involving messages, sermons, Hadith, proverbs and stories. With social and mental life having developed, prose developed and had diverse topics and arts. The art of writing then emerged and boomed in the Umayyad era. Among early writers are Abdel-Hamid al-Kateb (died in 132 AH), who absorbed conditions of writing in his renowned messages which he had delivered to writers to the extent that it was said: "Writing began with Abdel-Hamid and ended with ibn al-Amid."

The art of writing boomed in the Abbasid era. Outstanding writers mainly included al-Jaheth (died in 255 AH), who developed unrhymed prose, broadened its scopes and became its key writer, and Ibn al-Muqafaa (died in 142 AH). Prose reached its apex in the fourth Hejira century, which came up with famous writers like Abu Hayan al-Tawheedi (died in 400 AH) and Ibn al-Amid (died in 366 AH) and others, who were renowned for rhymed prose. But, afterwards, prose was overwhelmed by a wave of verbal embellishment and extreme grandiloquence at the expense of meaning. This is clearly shown in maqamat (short stories) and messages of some later writers.

Types of prose:

Messages:

Messages are a type of artistic prose. There are two types of messages; formal or general messages, and informal messages. In early Islam and Umayyad era, messages were so concise and unequivocal. In Abbasid era, writers of diwan began to write messages grandiloquently and splendidly. Among famous writers of messages are Abdel-Hamid al-Kateb, Ibn al-Amid, al-Saheb bin Abbad, and others. As for special messages (ikhwania), they were exchanged between friends. Al-Jaheth and bin Zaidoun were the key writers of this type of messages.

Oratory:

Oratory is another type of Arabic prose. Muslims paid attention to it just after poetry since it is rhetorical language that involved enthusiasm and imagination. Oratory had much influence in pre-Islamic period and early Islam. The Arabs used to train their sons in oratory at early age. Literary books contained several rhetorical orations. The fourth caliph Imam Ali bin Abi Taleb (may Allah be pleased with him) was the most famous orator of the era of the four righteous caliphs. The book "Nahj al-Balagha" or (Approach of Rhetoric) contained his rhetorical sermons and messages, but it included many orations that were untruly attributed to him. Oratory boomed in the Umayyad era, with several caliphs and rulers like Abdel-Malik bin Marwan, al-Hajjaj bin Yussif and Zyad bin Abeeh, having hinged upon oratory to convey their messages to people and to influence them by disseminating their principles and purposes. This era has left behind a large number of verbally rhetorical and ideologically rich sermons. However, in Abbasid era, oratory had largely declined compared to previous eras, with no then caliphs having been renowned for oratory.

Proverbs:

Muslims were so interested in proverbs that they collected and wrote them in books, the most famous of which are "Mugamaa al-Amthal" or (Collection of Proverbs) by al-Maidani[11], and "al-Mostaqsi Fi Amthal al-Arab" or (Finder of Arabic Proverbs) by al-Zamakhshari[12], which is an alphabetically ordered dictionary of Arabic proverbs.

Story:

Muslims boast a huge heritage of stories which people still get impressed when they read them thanks to relevant broadmindedness, fine imagination and fiction. They mainly include the stories of Antar or Antara, who was a black knight of Abs tribe, Saif bin Thi Yazen, a Yemeni hero, Abu Zeid al-Hilali, a Moroccan hero and al-Dhahir Bebars, Sultan of Egypt and a hero of crusade and Mughal wars.

Maqamat (short stories):

In the fourth Hejira century, maqamat (short stories) came to the surface, with famed writers having included Badea al-Zaman al-Hamathani (died in 398 AH), who wrote 400 maqamats that revolved around two heroes; Issa bin Hisham and Abu al-Fath al-Iskandrani, Ibn Naqia (died in 485 AH), who followed in the footsteps of al-Hamathani and al-Hariri (died in 516 AH), who wrote about the adventures of Abu Zeid al-Sorugi and Hareth bin Hammam, who were very intelligent.[13]

On famous literary books, Ibn Khaldun says: "Its pillars are four diwans; "Adab al-Katib" (Literature of the Writer) by In Qutaiba[14], "Al-Kamil" (the Perfect), by Mebarrad[15], "Al-Bayan Watabeen" (Eloquence and Illustration) by al-Jaheth[16], "al-Nawader" (The Rarities) by Abu Ali al-Qali[17]." [18]There are also famous books that cannot be ignored in this respect; including "al-Iqd al-Farid" (The Unique Necklace) by Ibn Abd Rabuh (died in 328 AH), "al-Aghani" (The Songs) by Abu Faraj al-Asfhani (died in 365 AH), and others.

In next articles, God willing, we will see how Arabic Islamic literature influenced other world literatures.

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